If you are like most writers, you love metaphors (for simplicity, I’m using the term metaphor in this article to refer to both metaphors and similes). Put simply, metaphors form a connection between two seemingly unrelated concepts. Examples include “all the world’s a stage,” “love is a battlefield,” and “life is like a box of chocolates.”
Writers love metaphors because they add texture and depth to an otherwise flat description. Why write “she fell asleep” when you can instead say “she slipped into sleep like a weary body sliding into a warm bath.” Metaphors are also great because they transform abstract concepts into concrete ideas, and in doing so, help us fulfill the ever-present “show, don’t tell” rule of writing. This means that metaphors have the ability to connect something that is abstract and less understood (e.g., all the intricacies of life) with something that is concrete and better understood (e.g., an assorted box of candies). As a result, metaphors enable the reader to understand something they otherwise might have not.
For instance, one of my favorite literary metaphors appears in Stephen King’s Misery. In the book, the main character Paul escapes from a car accident with his legs shattered. His rescuer, a crazy former nurse named Annie, has gotten Paul hooked on pain pills so that he is dependent on her. Within the first few pages of this book, King introduces a metaphor to help the reader understand Paul’s cycle of pain and addiction. Paul first reflects on a childhood memory: a beach where broken pilings that jut out of the sand are repeatedly covered, then revealed, by the changing tide. Then King compares those pilings to Paul’s chronic pain. “The pain wasn’t tidal…the pain only appeared to come and go. The pain was like the piling, sometimes covered and sometimes visible, but always there.” Later, he states that the pain pills are what brings the tide in and covers those broken pilings of pain. And when the pills wore off and the pilings breached the surface, the pain was unbearable. Now, I have never shattered my legs in a car accident, and I have never been addicted to pain pills, but King’s use of the pilings imagery allows me to empathize with Paul’s situation. I understand his pain. I understand his need for those pills.
The Power of Metaphor
Writers like metaphors because they aid the reader’s understanding and allow the writer to show instead of tell. But there’s another reason why writers should value metaphors; one they’re probably not even aware of. Metaphors are not just a literary technique; they are an extremely effective psychological technique.
Metaphors have the power to change the way a reader thinks about a concept on an unconscious level. To see this power in action, let’s examine a 2011 research study by Thibodeau and Boroditsky. In it, two groups of people read about a crime-ridden city and were asked to generate solutions to the problem. The only difference between the two groups was the metaphor used. The first group read an article that likened the city’s criminal element to a beast preying upon innocent citizens (animal metaphor). The second group read a nearly identical description except that the criminal element was likened to a disease that plagued the town (disease metaphor). When later asked to generate solutions to the crime issue, those who read the animal metaphor suggested control strategies like increasing police presence and imposing stricter penalties. But those who read the disease metaphor suggested diagnostic/treatment strategies like seeking out the primary cause of the crime wave or bolstering the economy.
The point is, the metaphor used changed the way the readers thought about the crime issue. If it was a beast, it needed to be controlled. If it was a disease, it needed to be treated. Thus, writers can use metaphors to strategically control their readers’ perceptions.
Crafting Powerful Metaphors
Okay, so you know metaphors are important and hopefully you now have a better understanding of why that’s the case. But not all metaphors are equally powerful. When we read a good metaphor, it seems to soar off the page. Bad metaphors hit the ground with a thud.
So how do you craft good metaphors?
The first step is to start with your target concept (e.g., sleep) and identify the quality you want to highlight (e.g., sleep can be heavy, peaceful or restless; you can slide into it or collapse). Let’s focus on sliding into sleep. Once you’ve landed on your quality, the next step is to generate other things that also share this quality. So what are other things that also slide? A baseball player sliding into home plate. A pat of butter sliding down a hot griddle. A sled sliding down an icy hill. A weary body sliding into a warm bath.
Now once you’ve come up with a list of possible metaphors, the next step is to throw out the bad ones and hold onto the good. Sounds complicated, but fear not. Just follow my five STORI rules and you’ll be crafting powerful and poetic metaphors in no time.
STORI Rules of Metaphors
Simple
A good metaphor is simple. It makes things clearer, doesn’t muddy them up even more. If it takes a lot of words to explain the connection between your two concepts, then you probably need to pick a simpler comparison.
Thematic
Metaphors work best when the comparisons you select match with a thematic element in your story. For example, let’s say you are writing about a bad breakup. If your protagonist is a tailor, you might describe the breakup as “tearing at the seams of his heart.” But if your protagonist is a gardener, you might describe it as “planting a poisonous seed of hate and resentment.” The goal here is to select metaphors that reinforce the other elements of your story.
Original
Avoid overused metaphors. What are some examples? Stephen King lists these in On Writing: “ran like a madman,” “pretty as a summer day,” and “fought like a tiger.” We could easily generate more: “when it rains it pours,” “dressed to kill,” “at the speed of light,” and “cute as a kitten.” Instead of using these clichéd comparisons, look for ones that are original and unique. For example, in Misery the more obvious metaphor for Paul’s pain would have been the surging tide. Instead, King chooses a more unique comparison by stating that the pain is akin to the broken pilings.
Relevant
When writers use metaphor, they are agreeing to an implicit promise to the reader that the two concepts are in some way connected. That doesn’t mean the connection has to be obvious—in truth the best comparisons tend to slowly sneak up on you. But once the metaphor’s full meaning hits the reader, it should feel like a lightbulb clicking on in their mind. Instead, bad metaphors feel forced because there is no clear connection between the two concepts. Stephen King offers this example: “He sat stolidly beside the corpse, waiting for the medical examiner as patiently as a man waiting for a turkey sandwich.” This metaphor flops because there’s no seeable connection between waiting for an examiner and waiting for a sandwich.
Important
Be strategic with your use of metaphors. This means only using them when you want to emphasize a concept or ignite a feeling that is important and central to your story. Paul’s chronic pain is integral to the story in Misery, so King constructs a metaphor to describe it. But he doesn’t do the same for all of Paul’s emotions and experiences. As Strunk and White point out, “similes coming in rapid fire, one right on top of another, are more distracting than illuminating. Readers need time to catch their breath.” Remember that not everything in your writing needs a metaphoric comparison. As Freud reportedly said, sometimes a cigar really is just a cigar.
FINAL THOUGHTS
Metaphors are often false from a strictly factual perspective. Have you ever actually seen an elephant in a room, or a raindrop the size of a cat or dog? But metaphors can ring true or fall flat (which are also metaphors!), depending on how they are constructed. Good metaphors—ones that are simple, thematic, original, relevant and important—help your readers better understand a concept by allowing them to experience it in a new light. In this way, metaphors are more than just a literary sleight of hand, they are fundamental to the way we as humans think and process the world around us.
