Originally published in Conjuring Worlds: An Afrofuturist Textbook.
Fiction provides an escape for the mind. It creates another world to visit without ever leaving your seat. Horror fiction abides by this premise, transporting readers to a world where the uncertain is commonplace, where the surreal is reality.
Storytelling dates back to the beginning of human existence, providing a form of interaction unparalleled by any other means of communication. As with all stories, oral and written, historical or contemporary, there is a beginning, middle, and end, a conflict and resolution. Storytellers utilize a variety of themes to convey the point they are trying to make. Prose with like themes are grouped together. This is how genres are formed. Genre is defined as a class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular form, content, technique, or the like by Dictionary.com. Based upon this definition, we can surmise that horror is a genre like any other, characterized by the same tenets. With character development and general flow of prose—progression from beginning, middle, to end—being of paramount importance, horror fiction effectively mirrors other genres in principle. What, then, makes the genre less popular with African American authors?
Connections Across Cultures
Fiction mirrors life, and that effect provides the necessary realism needed to produce a believable fantasy. In that vein, horror fiction has explained the unknown (societal deviance, the supernatural, the uncanny, etc.), providing a necessary balance to the expected that makes reality bearable. Depravities in life are blamed on the shadows created by horror fiction; it is easier to label unsavory behavior as demonic rather than to accept natural choice as an option. Such fears have been exacerbated and used as warnings to corral society in lieu of formal laws. Since the beginning of time, every culture has created fictitious scapegoats to define natural events.
The prevalence of antagonists with the proclivity of taking the blood of innocents in early 19th century horror fiction is a testament to the climate within which this genre thrives. In contrast, the popularity of fiction extolling chastity for fear of the slasher antagonist speaks to the change in cultural sensibility while, at the same time, making an effort at containment.
Many countries share archetypes in historical and contemporary depictions. The most popular and enduring archetype is the vampire. Almost every known culture in history has a version of this antagonist rooted in their folklore. In The Vampire in Modern American Media, Fountain surmised that vampires allow humanity to consider their intrinsically dark sides. The Ewe people of Africa describe beings such as the Adze in their folklore—a vampire with characteristics that are similar to Haiti’s Loogaroo, Russian folklore’s Upir, and India’s Pey and Iruci. The Asiman or Obayifo is a vampire from West African/Dahomey folklore. This creature sucks blood from people and animals alike. It also weakens crops. Similar to other vampire-like creatures, the Asiman (Obayifo) is also known to shape shift. Asiman (Obayifo) travels as a ball of light.
Zombies, a popular horror fiction antagonist brought to the forefront by George Romero’s Night of the Living Dead are part of West African and South African folklore as well. Though well known as a part of Haitian Vodoun, zombies made an appearance in African stories and were carried to Haiti and other locales during the slave trade. Zombies (Zombi) were described as a dead body brought to life by a bokor (witch/sorcerer) for the purpose of labor. Lore indicates that the souls were under the command of the bokor for a time, until either they were fed salt, which returned them to the grave, or God reclaimed their souls. Zombies are also present in other cultures, such as the Chinese Jiang Shi and the Scandinavian Draugr, embodying similar characteristics to Africa’s version, and adding their own idiosyncrasies as well.
Werewolves and ghosts also have counterparts in many cultures, forming an antagonist framework from which folklore and current fiction is formed. This commonality allows authors to traverse locales within their story arc and utilize the diversity provided to enrich their character and plot development. Each of these antagonists stem from the fear of the unknown and have been purported to be real. The cases of Clairvius Narcisse, a man who claimed to have been brought back from the dead to work on a sugar plantation in Haiti, and Elizabeth Bathory, who purportedly bathed in and drank the blood of young women to maintain her youthful complexion go far to perpetuate the assertion and cast doubt in societal truths, thus providing an incredible repository for horror fiction authors.
Since it is widely believed that human life began on the continent of Africa, it is possible that the earliest folklore known to man originates there as well. Carried by the slave trade, migration, and later, cultural immersion, African folklore and the beings they spawned have formed the basis for contemporary horror fiction as we know it.
Claiming Horror
Genre selection is one of the most defining aspects of an author’s career. It determines the significance of their portfolio by association initially (whether accurately or not) and affects how their work is received. With horror fiction falling out of favor commercially, in the past, African American authors shied away from the distinction, opting instead to have their work be considered part of the African American literature genre.
Much of what is considered historical African American literature discusses the struggles of slavery, the effort to rebuild, class structure, and turmoil within the community. The same can be said of African fiction—traditional focuses centered more on crime scenarios such as apartheid and genocide, and the resulting strife. Even when horror fiction enjoyed a relative boom in the 1980s, the number of African American horror authors was minimal.
Many authors of horror and other genres reject the idea of being “put in a box” and decide not to define themselves by a specific genre. According to the Horror Writers Association, many writers who have crafted works that are widely considered horror fiction are not, in fact, considered horror writers—such as Beloved by Toni Morrison, The Road by Cormac McCarthy, and The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood. Moving between genres and utilizing characteristics of many in prose is the current trend.
Embracing the distinction of horror author within the African American community is an even rarer occurrence. African American and African authors alike tend to dabble in the genre, creating a varied body of work, rather than focusing on horror as primary. Consider Octavia Butler, who is known for her work in the science fiction genre. She also penned paranormal fiction such as Wild Seed (shape shifters as main characters) and Fledgling (vampire protagonist). Likewise, Alain Mabanckou, who wrote African Psycho (a nod to Ellis’ American Psycho), the story of a man who consults a deceased serial killer in preparation for committing his own crimes, is known predominantly as a comedy and nonfiction author. Many other authors from the African diaspora choose to straddle the fence, dipping their foot in the waters of horror fiction every now and then, but remaining rooted on more solid ground. These writers include the likes of Nalo Hopkinson, Nnedi Okorafor, and Pearl Cleage.
There are some African American authors who claim the horror genre and produce well-respected work. While Linda Addison, the genre’s first African American to win the coveted Bram Stoker award for her collection of dark poems entitled Consumed, Reduced to Beautiful Grey Ashes, is not a household name, even with an impressive six books and 280 story bibliography, mainstream authors Tananarive Due and L. A. Banks made names for themselves in the 2000s. Tananarive Due’s work has been optioned for film and, before her untimely death, L. A. Banks enjoyed success with a vampire series released by a large press. Other African American horror fiction practitioners populate the small press world, such as Wrath James White, Brandon Massey, and Chesya Burke. The sub-genres these authors specialize in are as varied as their backgrounds, ranging from quiet to extreme horror. African American horror authors have been instrumental in creating new categories of fiction. For instance, hardcore horror author Andre Duza is a pioneer, developing a new genre influenced by horror fiction called bizarro, widely known as the genre of the weird. There are some African American voices producing prose and gaining readership, but the percentage pales in comparison to their Caucasian counterparts.
Motivations
The question remains: why do African American authors choose to avoid either writing horror fiction or embrace the genre? While crossing genre lines and incorporating more than one style is a liberating practice, especially in free form writing, there is a marked disassociation of African Americans from horror. Often authors barely touch the surface, preferring to allude to a horror concept as a remote aspect of their plot line, rather than immerse themselves into unadulterated horror prose. There are many reasons for this pattern, several of which are not specific to any culture.
The Legitimacy of Genre Fiction. Literary fiction has been considered the choice of academic, thoughtful readers who are interested in lyrical prose. The inner musings and character development prevalent in literary fiction distinguish it from genre fiction, which is plot driven and action propelled. In the mid twentieth century a further distinction was made to separate serious works of fiction; genre fiction was dismissed as commercial fiction.
African American Literature as a Genre. African American literature as a genre provides an even deeper distinction from genre fiction and literary fiction as a whole. Separating African American authors and books away from the overarching literary umbrella adds significance to the history as it simultaneously challenges the classical definition of literary prose. Legitimacy is found in the rivalry. Henry Louis Gates Jr. made much of the need for African American people to fight against the assertion that their culture was inferior because of the lack of written traditions. In so doing, the landscape was empty and ready to be filled. This independence serves as a springboard for African American writers to prove their ability and effect change in the stereotypes previously maintained.
Positioning and Credibility
The desire to have African American images depicted positively was part of the move toward separation, as asserted by W. E. B. Du Bois who famously posited that the African American image be positive, calling for the merge of stereotype and art. Manipulation of the dark arts and other supernatural folklore associated with African American traditions were not part of the picture being created by the literary movement. While this mindset has been challenged over the years and many African American authors have moved to projecting realism (in the vein of Richard Wright), the concept of airing dirty laundry still holds true.
Misconception of the Horror Genre
The perception that all horror fiction is filled with gratuitous gore is a stereotype that has plagued the genre since the sensationalism of the technique in film during the 1970s. While there is an element of blood in the genre, not all sub-genres utilize it as a mainstay. More subtle sub-genres, such as psychological horror, are often categorized inappropriately.
Formulaic premises were followed to the letter as the genre gained popularity, every book touching upon one of a small number of story arcs. This caused readers to feel that everything frightening had been done ad nauseam; they were desensitized by repetition. Post-apocalyptic disease, dystopian societies, thick, rolling fog on an otherwise clear, moonlit night, and the peculiar creaking on the stairs—traditional horror themes—became predictable, and therefore, were perceived as campy as opposed to legitimate. (An entire sub-genre called comedic horror arose from this phenomenon, parodying traditional horror premises and pitting unlikely antagonists against one another. This sub-genre is still popular in the visual medium). Because of this, many readers think horror is one-dimensional and select another genre.
Religion
Religious traditions play a part in African American authors avoiding the horror genre. Superstition about indulging in the unknown either by watching, reading, or speaking about the supernatural abounds within the African American community. In some denominations it is thought that if one engages in such thoughts/discussion, they run the risk of inviting a negative presence into their life. Simply speaking with a clairvoyant is considered taboo. Likewise, it is thought that one who enjoys the genre is indulging in a dark fascination that is deemed dangerous and something to be feared—this sentiment often rooted in the disparity between darkness (horror fiction) and light (theology). With religion entrenched in many African American traditions and culture, subconsciously or otherwise, these sentiments linger, serving as judge and juror. Whether it is superstition or action and consequence, fear of repercussion from God causes many African Americans to shun writing and reading horror fiction.
Consumer Interest
Commercialism is perhaps the most important aspect of determining what is produced. Neither horror fiction nor African American authors are immune to the effects of consumer interest. As with all media, a product is made available for sale—if it does not sell, the same product will not be available again, and will be replaced by something more marketable. Authors who are interested in their book having mainstream appeal will produce material in line with market trend. Authors interested in mainstream popularity, in large part, follow tried and true tenets of popular fiction, writing what is considered appealing to the masses rather than introducing more fantastic, out of the norm ideas. This has an adverse effect on the popularity of the genre, watering it down and making it predictable, causing horror and indeed speculative fiction as a whole to fall by the wayside.
Writing for the love of the art (which is what publishing with a small press or electronically is akin to in many writing circles) is admirable, but it will not offer the same reach as with a mass market release. Considered niche markets, small presses are typically only patronized by a small grouping of genre fans. Such venues will not allow an author to earn a living. This distinction is not specific to African American authors or the genre itself; all authors must consider whether their work has consumer appeal. Indeed, every author is faced with the possibility of not selling a single copy of their work. The result of that consideration is usually a lean toward the middle; literary and cross genre fiction serve as middle ground for mainstream authors.
Access to Readership
Finally, access to would-be readers poses a problem for African American authors, let alone those who write horror fiction. As reported in a 2012 Poynter Institute article, Hess states, “…nearly 90 percent of books reviewed in The New York Times are written by whites…” (1). If the horror fiction genre is suffering from minimization in mainstream interest, the percentage of characteristic novels reviewed will be affected. Those factors further reduce the probability of a horror novel written by an African American being reviewed.
Challenges to Cultural Positions
There are opposing theories to the position many African American authors have taken. One argument specific to the creation of a new genre (African American literature) suggests that literature is about the human condition as a whole and categorizing writing by race/ethnicity defeats the purpose of the craft. While there was a need for separation during certain times in American history, the same does not hold true currently. Distinction can be made by the skill displayed in preparing the story. Another argument to the same position states that the separation brings political views into what should be an otherwise neutral space. Finally, others challenge the distinction of literature as a stand-alone principle rather than a genre of its own. If followed, African American literature would be a sub-genre of the larger literature genre, much like psychological horror is a sub-genre of horror. Robert Hayden, the first African American poet laureate, said it best, “There is no such thing as Black literature. There’s good literature and bad. And that’s all,” as quoted by The New World Encyclopedia (2).
Artisans of the horror fiction craft would challenge an argument steeped in religion on principle. In What is Horror Fiction? the Horror Writers Association points to the Bible and the fact that it, too, could be labeled as horror based upon the stories therein, including demonic possession, the apocalypse, and the like. Much of horror fiction is based on religious tenets and tradition. The conflict of good and evil finds its base in scripture as does the concept of supernatural beings.
The Future of Horror Fiction in the African American Community
Horror fiction as a genre has existed for as long as spoken word. It exists in our warnings to children; it exists on the news; the concept of fear will never die as long as there is the unknown. African American authors writing horror as their predominant genre is a reality that is uncertain. Cross genre volumes may be more prevalent as future literature norms change.
Acceptance of horror fiction in the African American literature genre will do much to solidify the legitimacy of the style and the practitioners; however, that would require a loosening of the constraints in place culturally. There is more about African lore that has yet to be written; there are many more antagonists to put in enlightened prose. Interesting combinations abound, even if an author chose to remain within the folklore from only one tribe.
With the resurgence in popularity of archetypes such as the vampire and zombie, made popular in visual media, horror fiction has the opportunity to reach more people than before. The methods to get prose into a reader’s hands multiply with the advent of tablets, e-readers, and software for mobile phones. With the world utilizing mobile media more and more every day, stigmas about electronic and small press publishing may dissipate. The horror genre has the potential to rebound. African American authors wishing to make a foray into the genre may find this to be one of the more receptive times in recent history to do so.
Ultimately, readership dictates production. If African Americans choose not to read horror fiction, it compromises the amount of prose produced. If African American authors choose not to write in the genre, the potential reach to African American readers, especially those who predominantly read work written by authors of color, is reduced.
